<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"><head><meta charset="utf-8"><meta name="generator" content="pdf2htmlEX"><meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1"><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://csdnimg.cn/release/download_crawler_static/css/base.min.css"><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://csdnimg.cn/release/download_crawler_static/css/fancy.min.css"><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://csdnimg.cn/release/download_crawler_static/10459027/raw.css"><script src="https://csdnimg.cn/release/download_crawler_static/js/compatibility.min.js"></script><script src="https://csdnimg.cn/release/download_crawler_static/js/pdf2htmlEX.min.js"></script><script>try{pdf2htmlEX.defaultViewer = new pdf2htmlEX.Viewer({});}catch(e){}</script><title></title></head><body><div id="sidebar" style="display: none"><div id="outline"></div></div><div id="pf1" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="1"><div class="pc pc1 w0 h0"><img class="bi x0 y0 w1 h1" alt="" src="https://csdnimg.cn/release/download_crawler_static/10459027/bg1.jpg"><div class="t m0 x1 h2 y1 ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls0 ws0">9</div><div class="t m0 x2 h3 y2 ff1 fs1 fc0 sc0 ls1 ws0">CHAPTER</div><div class="t m0 x3 h4 y3 ff1 fs2 fc0 sc0 ls2 ws0">1</div><div class="t m0 x4 h5 y4 ff1 fs3 fc0 sc0 ls3 ws0">INTRODUCTION</div><div class="t m0 x5 h6 y5 ff2 fs4 fc1 sc0 ls0 ws0">n</div><div class="t m0 x6 h7 y6 ff3 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls4 ws1">The evolution of digital circuit design</div><div class="t m0 x5 h6 y7 ff2 fs4 fc1 sc0 ls0 ws0">n</div><div class="t m0 x7 h7 y8 ff3 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls5 ws2">Compelling issues in digital circuit design</div><div class="t m0 x5 h6 y9 ff2 fs4 fc1 sc0 ls0 ws0">n</div><div class="t m0 x8 h7 ya ff3 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls6 ws3">How to measure the quality of <span class="ls0 ws4">a d<span class="ls7 ws0">esign</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x9 h7 yb ff3 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls8 ws5">Valuable references</div><div class="t m0 xa h2 yc ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls9 ws0">1.1<span class="_ _0"> </span><span class="ff2 lsa ws6">A Historical Perspective</span></div><div class="t m0 xa h2 yd ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls9 ws0">1.2<span class="_ _0"> </span><span class="ff2 lsb ws7">Issues in Digital Integrated Circuit Design</span></div><div class="t m0 xa h2 ye ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls9 ws0">1.3<span class="_ _0"> </span><span class="ff2 lsc ws8">Quality Metrics of a Digital Design</span></div><div class="t m0 xa h2 yf ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls9 ws0">1.4<span class="_ _0"> </span><span class="ff2 lsd">Summary</span></div><div class="t m0 xa h2 y10 ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls9 ws0">1.5<span class="_ _0"> </span><span class="ff2 lse ws9">To Probe Further</span></div><div class="t m0 xb h8 y11 ff2 fs5 fc0 sc0 lsf wsa">chapter1.fm Page 9 Friday, January 18, 2002 8:58 AM</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.568627,0.000000,0.000000,1.568627,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div></body></html>
<div id="pf2" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="2"><div class="pc pc2 w0 h0"><img class="bi x0 y0 w1 h1" alt="" src="https://csdnimg.cn/release/download_crawler_static/10459027/bg2.jpg"><div class="t m0 xc h2 y12 ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls10 ws0">10<span class="_ _1"> </span><span class="ff2 ls11">INTRODUCTION<span class="_ _2"> </span><span class="ls12 wsb">Chapter 1</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xc h9 y13 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls13 ws0">1.<span class="ls14">1<span class="ls15 wsc">A Historical Perspective</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y14 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls16 wsd">The concept of digital data manipulation has made a dramatic impact on our society. One</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y15 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls17 wse">has long grown accustomed to the idea of digital computers. Evolving steadily from main-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y16 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls18 wsf">frame and minicomputers, personal and laptop computers have proliferated into daily life.</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y17 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls19 ws10">More significant, however, is a continuous trend towards digital solutions in all other</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y18 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls1a ws11">areas of electronics. Instrumentation was one of the first noncomputing domains where the</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y19 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls1b ws12">potential benefits of digital data manipulation over analog processing were recognized.</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1a ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls1c ws13">Other areas such as control were soon to follow. Only recently have we witnessed the con-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1b ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls1d ws14">version of telecommunications and consumer electronics towards the digital format.</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1c ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls17 ws15">Increasingly, telephone data is transmitted and processed digitally over both wired and</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1d ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls1e ws16">wireless networks. The compact disk has revolutionized the audio world, and digital video</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1e ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls1f ws17">is following in its footsteps.</div><div class="t m0 xe h6 y1f ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 lsf ws18">The idea of implementing computational engines using an encoded data format is by</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y20 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls20 ws19">no means an idea of our times. In the early nineteenth century, <span class="ls21 ws1a">Babbage envisioned large-</span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y21 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls22 ws1b">scale mechanical computing devices, called<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _3"> </span><span class="ff4 ls23 ws1d">Difference Engines</span><span class="ls24 ws1e"> [Swade93]. Although</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y22 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls25 ws1f">these engines use the decimal number system rather than the binary representation now</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y23 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls26 ws20">common in modern electronics, the underlying concepts are very similar. The <span class="_ _4"></span><span class="ls5 ws0">Analytical</span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y24 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls27 ws21">Engine, developed in 1834, was perceived as a general-purpose computing machine, with</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y25 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls28 ws22">features strikingly close to modern computers. Besides executing the basic repertoire of</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y26 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls29 ws23">operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) in arbitrary sequences, the</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y27 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls2a ws24">machine operated in a two-cycle sequence, called “store” and “mill” (execute), similar to</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y28 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls26 ws25">current computers. It even used pipelining to speed up the execution of the addition opera-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y29 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls2b ws26">tion! Unfortunately, the complexity and the cost of the designs made the concept impracti-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y2a ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls2c ws27">cal. For instance, the design of Difference Engine I (part of which is shown in Figure 1.1)</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y2b ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls2d ws28">required 25,000 mechanical parts at a total cost of £17,470 (in 1834!).</div><div class="t m0 xf ha y2c ff5 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls2e ws29">Figure 1.1<span class="_ _5"> </span><span class="ff6 ls2f ws2a">Working part of Babbage’s </span></div><div class="t m0 xf ha y2d ff6 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls30 ws2b">Difference Engine I (1832), the first known </div><div class="t m0 xf ha y2e ff6 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls31 ws2c">automatic calculator (from [Swade93], </div><div class="t m0 xf ha y2f ff6 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls32 ws2d">courtesy of the Science Museum of </div><div class="t m0 xf ha y30 ff6 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls33 ws0">London).</div><div class="t m0 xb h8 y11 ff2 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls34 ws2e">chapter1.fm Page 10 Friday, January 18, 2002 8:58 AM</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.568627,0.000000,0.000000,1.568627,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div>
<div id="pf3" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="3"><div class="pc pc3 w0 h0"><img class="bi x0 y0 w1 h1" alt="" src="https://csdnimg.cn/release/download_crawler_static/10459027/bg3.jpg"><div class="t m0 xc h2 y12 ff2 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls35 ws2f">Section 1.1<span class="_ _2"> </span><span class="ls36 ws30">A Historical Perspective<span class="_ _6"> </span><span class="ff1 ls10 ws0">11</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xe h6 y13 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls37 ws31">The electrical solution turned out to be more cost effective. Early digital electronics</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y31 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls38 ws32">systems were based on magnetically controlled switches (or<span class="ls2 ws33"> <span class="_ _7"></span><span class="ls39 ws34">relays). They were mainly</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y14 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls22 ws35">used in the implementation of very simple logic networks. Examples of such are train</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y15 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls3a ws36">safety systems, where they are still being used at present. The age of digital electronic</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y16 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls3b ws37">computing only started in full with the introduction of the vacuum tube. While originally</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y17 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls3c ws38">used almost exclusively for analog processing, it was realized early on that the vacuum</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y18 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls3d ws39">tube was useful for digital computations as well. Soon complete computers were realized.</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y19 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls21 ws3a">The era of the vacuum tube based computer culminated in the design of machines such as</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1a ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls3e ws3b">the <span class="_ _8"></span><span class="ls27 ws3c">ENIAC (intended for computing artillery firing tables) and the<span class="ls2 ws33"> <span class="_ _8"></span><span class="ls3f ws3d">UNIVAC I (the first</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1b ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls40 ws3e">successful commercial computer). To get an idea about<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _8"></span><span class="ff4 ls25 ws3f">integration density</span></span><span class="ws40">, the ENIAC</span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1c ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls41 ws41">was 80 feet long, 8.5 feet high and several feet wide and incorporated 18,000 vacuum</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1d ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls2b ws42">tubes. It became rapidly clear, however, that this design technology had reached its limits.</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1e ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls42 ws43">Reliability problems and excessive power consumption made the implementation of larger</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1f ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls21 ws44">engines economically and practically infeasible. </div><div class="t m0 xe h6 y20 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls21 ws45">All changed with the invention of the<span class="ff4 ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _4"></span><span class="ls43 ws0">transistor</span></span><span class="ls44 ws46"> at Bell Telephone Laboratories in</span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y21 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls45 ws47">1947 [Bardeen48], followed by the introduction of the bipolar transistor by <span class="_ _4"></span><span class="ls46 ws48">Schockley in</span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y22 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls47 ws49">1949 [Schockley49]</div><div class="t m0 x10 h8 y32 ff2 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls2 ws0">1</div><div class="t m0 x6 h6 y22 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls48 ws4a">. It took till 1956 before this led to the first bipolar digital logic gate,</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y23 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls2b ws4b">introduced by Harris [Harris56], and even more time before this translated into a set of</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y24 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls45 ws4c">integrated-circuit commercial logic gates, called the Fairchild Micrologic family</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y25 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls49 ws4d">[Norman60]. The first truly successful IC logic family, <span class="ff4 ls4a ws4e">TTL (<span class="ls4b ws4f">Transistor-Transistor Logic)</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y26 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls4c ws50">was pioneered in 1962 [Beeson62]. Other logic families were devised with higher perfor-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y27 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls8 wse">mance in mind. Examples of these are the current switching circuits that produced the first</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y28 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls29 ws51">subnanosecond digital gates and culminated in the<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _4"></span><span class="ff4 ls4d ws52">ECL <span class="ls4e ws0">(<span class="_ _9"></span><span class="ls4f ws53">Emitter-Coupled Logic)<span class="ff2 ls50 ws54"> family</span></span></span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y29 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls8 ws55">[Masaki74]. TTL had the advantage, however, of offering a higher integration density and</div><div class="t m0 xd h9 y2a ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls51 ws56">was the basis of the<span class="ff1 ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _4"></span></span><span class="ls1b ws57">first integrated circuit revolution. In fact, the manufacturing of TTL</span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y2b ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls52 ws58">components is what spear-headed the first large semiconductor companies such as Fair-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y33 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls53 ws59">child, National, and Texas Instruments. The family was so successful that it composed the</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y34 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls16 ws5a">largest fraction of the digital semiconductor market until the 1980s.</div><div class="t m0 xe h6 y35 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls54 ws5b">Ultimately, bipolar digital logic lost the battle for hegemony in the digital design</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y36 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls55 ws5c">world for exactly the reasons that haunted the vacuum tube approach: the large power con-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y37 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls56 ws5d">sumption per gate puts an upper limit on the number of gates that can be reliably integrated</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y38 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls57 ws5e">on a single die, package, housing, or box. Although attempts were made to develop high</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y39 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls58 ws5f">integration density, low-power bipolar families (such as<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _8"></span><span class="ff4 ls59 ws0">I</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x11 hb y3a ff4 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls2 ws0">2</div><div class="t m0 x12 h7 y39 ff4 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls5a ws0">L—<span class="ls5b ws60">Integrated Injection Logic</span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y3b ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls1f ws61">[Hart72]), the torch was gradually passed to the MOS digital integrated circuit approach. </div><div class="t m0 xe h6 y3c ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls5c ws62">The basic principle behind the<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _8"></span><span class="ls5d ws63">MOSFET transistor (originally called</span><span class="ws33"> <span class="_ _7"></span><span class="ls5e ws64">IGFET) was</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y3d ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls48 ws4a">proposed in a patent by J. Lilienfeld (Canada) as early as 1925, and, independently, by O.</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y3e ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls42 ws65">Heil in England in 1935. Insufficient knowledge of the materials and gate stability prob-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y3f ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls5f ws66">lems, however, delayed the practical usability of the device for a long time. Once these</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y40 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls16 ws67">were solved, MOS digital integrated circuits started to take off in full in the early 1970s.</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y41 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls52 ws68">Remarkably, the first MOS logic gates introduced were of the<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _a"> </span><span class="ls60 ws69">CMOS variety</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y42 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls21 ws6a">[Wanlass63], and this trend continued till the late 1960s. The complexity of the manufac-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y43 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls48 ws6b">turing process delayed the full exploitation of these devices for two more decades. Instead,</div><div class="t m0 xe hc y44 ff2 fs7 fc0 sc0 ls2 ws0">1</div><div class="t m0 x13 hd y45 ff2 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls61 ws6c">An intriguing overview of the evolution of digital integrated circuits can be found in [Murphy93].</div><div class="t m0 xd hd y46 ff2 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls62 ws6d">(Most of the data in this overview has been extracted from this reference). It is accompanied by some of the his-</div><div class="t m0 xd hd y47 ff2 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls63 ws6e">torically ground-breaking publications in the domain of digital IC’s.</div><div class="t m0 xb h8 y11 ff2 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls34 ws2e">chapter1.fm Page 11 Friday, January 18, 2002 8:58 AM</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.568627,0.000000,0.000000,1.568627,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div>
<div id="pf4" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="4"><div class="pc pc4 w0 h0"><img class="bi x0 y0 w1 h1" alt="" src="https://csdnimg.cn/release/download_crawler_static/10459027/bg4.jpg"><div class="t m0 xc h2 y12 ff1 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls10 ws0">12<span class="_ _1"> </span><span class="ff2 ls11">INTRODUCTION<span class="_ _2"> </span><span class="ls12 wsb">Chapter 1</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y13 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls29 ws6f">the first practical MOS integrated circuits were implemented in<span class="ls2 ws33"> <span class="_ _b"> </span><span class="ws70">PMOS-only logic and</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y31 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls64 ws71">were used in applications such as calculators. The second age of the digital integrated cir-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y14 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls18 ws72">cuit revolution was inaugurated with the introduction of the first microprocessors by Intel</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y15 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls65 ws73">in 1972 (the 4004)<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _7"></span><span class="ls66 ws74">[Faggin72] <span class="_ _8"></span><span class="ls67 ws75">and 1974 (the</span></span> <span class="_ _7"></span><span class="ls68 ws76">8080) [Shima74]. These processors were</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y16 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls69 ws77">implemented in<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _b"> </span><span class="ls64 ws78">NMOS-only logic,</span> <span class="_ _b"> </span><span class="ls6a ws79">which <span class="ls6b ws0">h<span class="_ _c"></span><span class="ls6c ws7a">as the advantage of higher speed over the</span></span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y17 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls16 ws7b">PMOS logic. Simultaneously, MOS technology enabled the realization of the first high-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y18 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls5c ws7c">density semiconductor memories. For instance, the first 4Kbit MOS memory was intro-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y19 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls6d ws7d">duced in 1970 [Hoff70]. </div><div class="t m0 xe h6 y1a ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls6e ws7e">These events were at the start of a truly astounding evolution towards ever higher</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1b ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls6f ws7f">integration densities and speed performances, a revolution that is still in full swing right</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1c ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls70 ws80">now. The road to the current levels of integration has not been without hindrances, how-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1d ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls71 ws81">ever. In the late 1970s, NMOS-only logic started to suffer from the same plague that made</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1e ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls72 ws82">high-density bipolar logic unattractive or infeasible: power consumption. This realization,</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y1f ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls2 ws83">combined with progress in manufacturing technology, finally tilted the balance towards</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y20 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls73 ws84">the CMOS technology, and this is where we still are today. Interestingly enough, power</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y21 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls74 ws85">consumption concerns are rapidly becoming dominant in CMOS design as well, and this</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y22 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls75 ws86">time there does not seem to be a new technology around the corner to alleviate the</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y23 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls76 ws0">problem.</div><div class="t m0 xe h6 y24 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls77 ws87">Although the large majority of the current integrated circuits are implemented in the</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y25 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls18 ws88">MOS technology, other technologies come into play when very high performance is at</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y26 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls78 ws89">stake. An example of this is the<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _7"></span><span class="ls79 ws8a">BiCMOS technology that combines bipolar and MOS</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y27 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls40 ws8b">devices on the same die. BiCMOS is used in high-speed memories and gate arrays. When</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y28 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls7a ws8c">even higher performance is necessary, other technologies emerge besides the already men-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y29 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls9 ws8d">tioned bipolar silicon ECL family—<span class="ls7b ws8e">Gallium-Arsenide, <span class="_ _d"> </span><span class="ls79 ws8f">Silicon-Germanium and even</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y2a ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls7c ws90">superconducting technologies. These technologies only play a very small role in the over-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y2b ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls27 ws91">all digital integrated circuit design scene. With the ever increasing performance of CMOS,</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y33 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls7b ws92">this role is bound to be further reduced with time. Hence the focus of this textbook on</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y34 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls7d ws93">CMOS only. </div><div class="t m0 xc h9 y37 ff1 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls13 ws0">1.<span class="ls14">2<span class="ls4f ws94">Issues in Digital Integrated Circuit Design</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y39 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls7e ws95">Integration density and performance of integrated circuits have gone through an astound-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y3b ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls6c ws96">ing revolution in the last couple of decades. In the 1960s, Gordon Moore, then with Fair-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y3c ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls23 ws97">child Corporation and later cofounder of Intel, predicted that the number of transistors that</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y3d ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls5c ws98">can be integrated on a single die would grow exponentially with time. This prediction,</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y3e ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls7f ws99">later called <span class="_ _4"></span><span class="ff4 ls80 ws9a">Moore’s law</span><span class="ls40 ws9b">, has proven to be amazingly visionary<span class="ls7c ws9c"> [Moore65]<span class="ls81 ws9d">. Its validity is</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y3f ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls82 ws9e">best illustrated with the aid of a set of graphs. Figure 1.2 plots the integration density of</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y40 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls83 ws9f">both logic IC’s and<span class="ls2 ws33"> <span class="_ _4"></span><span class="ls84 wsa0">memory as a function of time. As can be observed,</span><span class="ws1c"> <span class="_ _8"></span><span class="ls41 wsa1">integration com-</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y41 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls37 wsa2">plexity doubles approximately every 1 to 2 years. As a result, memory density has</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y42 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls85 wsa3">increased by more than a thousandfold since 1970. </div><div class="t m0 xe h6 y43 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls3d wsa4">An intriguing case study is offered by the <span class="ls41 wsa5">microprocessor. From its inception in the</span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y48 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls86 wsa6">early seventies, the microprocessor has grown in performance and complexity at a steady</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y49 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls87 wsa7">and predictable pace. The transistor<span class="ls50 wsa8"> counts <span class="ls88 wsa9">for a number of landmark designs are collected</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y4a ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls1b wsaa">in Figure 1.3. The million-transistor/chip barrier was crossed in the late eighties.<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _8"></span><span class="ls6c ws0">Clock</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y4b ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 lsf wsab">frequencies double every three years and have reached into the GHz range. This is illus-</div><div class="t m0 xb h8 y11 ff2 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls34 ws2e">chapter1.fm Page 12 Friday, January 18, 2002 8:58 AM</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.568627,0.000000,0.000000,1.568627,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div>
<div id="pf5" class="pf w0 h0" data-page-no="5"><div class="pc pc5 w0 h0"><img class="bi x0 y0 w1 h1" alt="" src="https://csdnimg.cn/release/download_crawler_static/10459027/bg5.jpg"><div class="t m0 xc h2 y12 ff2 fs0 fc0 sc0 ls35 ws2f">Section 1.2<span class="_ _2"> </span><span class="ls89 wsac">Issues in Digital Integrated Circuit Design<span class="_ _e"> </span><span class="ff1 ls10 ws0">13</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y4c ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls15 wsad">trated in Figure 1.4, which plots the microprocessor trends in terms <span class="_ _4"></span><span class="ls8a wsae">of <span class="ls8b wsaf">performance at the</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y4d ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls66 wsb0">beginning of the 21</div><div class="t m0 x10 h8 y4e ff2 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls8c ws0">st</div><div class="t m0 x14 h6 y4d ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls40 wsb1"> century. An important observation is that, as of now, these trends</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y4f ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls86 wsb2">have not shown any signs of a slow-down.</div><div class="t m0 xe h6 y50 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls7c wsb3">It should be no surprise to the reader that this revolution has had a profound impact</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y51 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls5b wsb4">on how digital circuits are designed. Early designs were truly hand-crafted. Every transis-</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y52 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls8d wsb5">tor was laid out and optimized individually and carefully fitted into its environment. This</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y53 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls25 wsb6">is adequately illustrated in Figure 1.5a, which shows the design of the<span class="ls2 ws1c"> <span class="_ _4"></span><span class="ls8e wsb7">Intel 4004 micro-</span></span></div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y54 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls2d wsb8">processor. This approach is, obviously, not appropriate when more than a million devices</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y55 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls69 wsb9">have to be created and assembled. With the rapid evolution of the design technology,</div><div class="t m0 xd h6 y56 ff2 fs4 fc0 sc0 ls8f wsba">time-to-market is one of the crucial factors in the ultimate success of a component.</div><div class="t m0 x15 ha y57 ff6 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls90 wsbb">(a) Trends in logic IC complexity</div><div class="t m0 x16 ha y58 ff6 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls91 wsbc">(b) Trends in memory complexity</div><div class="t m0 x17 he y59 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">1970<span class="_ _f"> </span><span class="ls26">1980<span class="_ _f"> </span></span>1990<span class="_ _f"> </span><span class="ls93">2000<span class="_ _f"> </span><span class="ls26">2010</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x18 hf y5a ff7 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls94 ws0">Year</div><div class="t m0 x19 he y5b ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">1</span><span class="_"> </span><span class="ls95"><span class="fc2 sc0">Gbits</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x1a he y5c ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls96 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.15</span><span class="ls97"><span class="fc2 sc0">-</span><span class="ls98"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.2µm</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 x1b he y5d ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">256</span><span class="_"> </span><span class="ls99"><span class="fc2 sc0">Mbits</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x1c he y5e ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9a ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.25</span><span class="ls97"><span class="fc2 sc0">-</span><span class="ls9b"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.3µm</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 x1d he y5f ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">4</span><span class="_"> </span><span class="ls95"><span class="fc2 sc0">Gbits</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x1e he y60 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9c ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.15µm</span></div><div class="t m0 x1f he y61 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">64</span><span class="_"> </span><span class="ls9d"><span class="fc2 sc0">Mbits</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x20 he y62 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9a ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.35</span><span class="ls97"><span class="fc2 sc0">-</span><span class="ls9b"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.4µm</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 x21 he y63 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">16</span><span class="_"> </span><span class="ls9d"><span class="fc2 sc0">Mbits</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x22 he y64 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9e ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.5</span><span class="ls97"><span class="fc2 sc0">-</span><span class="ls9b"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.6µm</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 x12 he y65 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">1</span><span class="_"> </span><span class="ls9d"><span class="fc2 sc0">Mbits</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x23 he y66 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9f ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">1.0</span><span class="ls97"><span class="fc2 sc0">-</span><span class="ls9b"><span class="fc2 sc0">1.2µm</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 x24 he y67 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">4</span><span class="_"> </span><span class="ls9d"><span class="fc2 sc0">Mbits</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x25 he y68 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9f ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.7</span><span class="ls97"><span class="fc2 sc0">-</span><span class="ls9b"><span class="fc2 sc0">0.8µm</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 x26 he y69 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">256</span><span class="_"> </span><span class="lsa0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Kbits</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x27 he y6a ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9e ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">1.6</span><span class="ls97"><span class="fc2 sc0">-</span><span class="ls9b"><span class="fc2 sc0">2.4µm</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 x28 he y6b ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">64</span><span class="_"> </span><span class="ls95"><span class="fc2 sc0">Kbits</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x29 he y6c ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 x17 h10 y6d ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa1 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y6e ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y6f ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">9</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y70 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y71 ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">8</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y72 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y73 ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">7</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y74 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y75 ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">6</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y76 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y67 ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">5</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y77 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y78 ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">4</div><div class="t m1 x2b hf y79 ff7 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls2 wsbd">Number of bits per chip</div><div class="t m0 x2c he y7a ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">64<span class="_"> </span><span class="ls95">Gbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x2d he y7b ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9c ws0">0.08µm</div><div class="t m0 x2e h11 y7c ff1 fsa fc0 sc0 lsa3 ws0">*</div><div class="t m0 x1c h12 y6a ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa4 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Encyclopedia</span></div><div class="t m0 x1c h12 y7d ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa5 wsbe"><span class="fc2 sc0">2 hrs CD Audio</span></div><div class="t m0 x1c h12 y7e ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 ls20 wsbf"><span class="fc2 sc0">30 sec HDTV</span></div><div class="t m0 x2f h12 y7f ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa6 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Encyclopedia</span></div><div class="t m0 x2f h12 y80 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa5 wsbe"><span class="fc2 sc0">2 hrs CD Audio</span></div><div class="t m0 x2f h12 y81 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 ls20 wsbf"><span class="fc2 sc0">30 sec HDTV</span></div><div class="t m0 x30 h12 y82 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa7 wsc0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Human memory</span></div><div class="t m0 x30 h12 y83 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa8 wsc1"><span class="fc2 sc0">Human DNA</span></div><div class="t m0 x31 h12 y84 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa7 wsc0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Human memory</span></div><div class="t m0 x31 h12 y85 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa9 wsc2"><span class="fc2 sc0">Human DNA</span></div><div class="t m0 x30 h12 y86 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsaa ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Book</span></div><div class="t m0 x31 h12 y87 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsaa ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Book</span></div><div class="t m0 x27 h12 y88 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsab ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Page</span></div><div class="t m0 x32 h12 y89 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsac ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Page</span></div><div class="t m0 x17 he y59 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">1970<span class="_ _f"> </span><span class="ls26">1980<span class="_ _f"> </span></span>1990<span class="_ _f"> </span><span class="ls93">2000<span class="_ _f"> </span><span class="ls26">2010</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x18 hf y5a ff7 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls94 ws0">Year</div><div class="t m0 x19 he y5b ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">1<span class="_"> </span><span class="ls95">Gbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x1a he y5c ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls96 ws0">0.15<span class="ls97">-<span class="ls98">0.2µm</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x1b he y5d ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">256<span class="_"> </span><span class="ls99">Mbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x1c he y5e ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9a ws0">0.25<span class="ls97">-<span class="ls9b">0.3µm</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x1d he y5f ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">4<span class="_"> </span><span class="ls95">Gbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x1e he y60 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9c ws0">0.15µm</div><div class="t m0 x1f he y61 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">64<span class="_"> </span><span class="ls9d">Mbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x20 he y62 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9a ws0">0.35<span class="ls97">-<span class="ls9b">0.4µm</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x21 he y63 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">16<span class="_"> </span><span class="ls9d">Mbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x22 he y64 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9e ws0">0.5<span class="ls97">-<span class="ls9b">0.6µm</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x12 he y65 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">1<span class="_"> </span><span class="ls9d">Mbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x23 he y66 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9f ws0">1.0<span class="ls97">-<span class="ls9b">1.2µm</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x24 he y67 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">4<span class="_"> </span><span class="ls9d">Mbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x25 he y68 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9f ws0">0.7<span class="ls97">-<span class="ls9b">0.8µm</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x26 he y69 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">256<span class="_"> </span><span class="lsa0">Kbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x27 he y6a ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9e ws0">1.6<span class="ls97">-<span class="ls9b">2.4µm</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x28 he y6b ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">64<span class="_"> </span><span class="ls95">Kbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x29 he y6c ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 x17 h10 y6d ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa1 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y6e ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y6f ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">9</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y70 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y71 ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">8</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y72 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y73 ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">7</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y74 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y75 ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">6</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y76 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y67 ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">5</div><div class="t m0 x2a he y77 ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">10</div><div class="t m0 xf h10 y78 ff1 fs9 fc0 sc0 lsa2 ws0">4</div><div class="t m1 x2b hf y79 ff7 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls2 wsbd">Number of bits per chip</div><div class="t m0 x2c he y7a ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls92 ws0">64<span class="_"> </span><span class="ls95">Gbits</span></div><div class="t m0 x2d he y7b ff1 fs8 fc0 sc0 ls9c ws0">0.08µm</div><div class="t m0 x2e h11 y7c ff1 fsa fc0 sc0 lsa3 ws0">*</div><div class="t m0 x1c h12 y6a ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa4 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Encyclopedia</span></div><div class="t m0 x1c h12 y7d ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa5 wsbe"><span class="fc2 sc0">2 hrs CD Audio</span></div><div class="t m0 x1c h12 y7e ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 ls20 wsbf"><span class="fc2 sc0">30 sec HDTV</span></div><div class="t m0 x2f h12 y7f ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa6 ws0">Encyclopedia</div><div class="t m0 x2f h12 y80 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa5 wsbe">2 hrs CD Audio</div><div class="t m0 x2f h12 y81 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 ls20 wsbf">30 sec HDTV</div><div class="t m0 x30 h12 y82 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa7 wsc0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Human memory</span></div><div class="t m0 x30 h12 y83 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa8 wsc1"><span class="fc2 sc0">Human DNA</span></div><div class="t m0 x31 h12 y84 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa7 wsc0">Human memory</div><div class="t m0 x31 h12 y85 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsa9 wsc2">Human DNA</div><div class="t m0 x30 h12 y86 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsaa ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Book</span></div><div class="t m0 x31 h12 y87 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsaa ws0">Book</div><div class="t m0 x27 h12 y88 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsab ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Page</span></div><div class="t m0 x32 h12 y89 ff7 fsb fc0 sc0 lsac ws0">Page</div><div class="t m0 x33 ha y8a ff5 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls24 wsc3">Figure 1.2<span class="_ _5"> </span><span class="ff6 lsad wsc4">Evolution of integration complexity of logic ICs and memories as a function of time.</span></div><div class="t m0 x34 ha y8b ff5 fs6 fc0 sc0 ls87 wsc5">Figure 1.3<span class="_ _5"> </span><span class="ff6 lsae wsc6">Historical evolution of microprocessor transistor count<span class="lsaf wsc7"> (from [Intel01])<span class="lsb0 ws0">.</span></span></span></div><div class="t m0 x35 h13 y8c ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 lsb1 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">1000</span></div><div class="t m0 x36 h13 y8d ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 lsb2 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">10000</span></div><div class="t m0 x37 h13 y8e ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 ls0 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">100000</span></div><div class="t m0 x38 h13 y8f ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 lsb3 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">1000000</span></div><div class="t m0 xe h13 y90 ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 lsb1 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">10000000</span></div><div class="t m0 x39 h13 y91 ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 ls0 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">100000000</span></div><div class="t m0 x3a h13 y92 ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 ls9b ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">1970</span><span class="_ _10"> </span><span class="lsb1"><span class="fc2 sc0">1975</span><span class="_ _10"> </span><span class="fc2 sc0">1980</span><span class="_ _11"> </span><span class="lsb4"><span class="fc2 sc0">1985</span><span class="_ _2"> </span><span class="fc2 sc0">1990</span><span class="_ _10"> </span></span><span class="fc2 sc0">1995</span><span class="_ _11"> </span></span><span class="fc2 sc0">2000</span></div><div class="t m0 x3b h14 y2d ff7 fsd fc0 sc0 lsb5 wsc8"><span class="fc2 sc0">Year of Introduction</span></div><div class="t m1 x3c h14 y93 ff7 fsd fc0 sc0 lsb6 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">Transistors</span></div><div class="t m0 x3d h15 y94 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsb7 wsc9"><span class="fc2 sc0">Pentium </span><span class="lsb8 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">®</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x3e h15 y95 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsb9 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">486</span></div><div class="t m0 x3f h15 y96 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsb9 ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">386</span></div><div class="t m0 x40 h15 y97 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsba wsca"><span class="fc2 sc0">286 </span><span class="lsbb ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">™</span></span></div><div class="t m0 x41 h15 y98 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbc ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">8086</span></div><div class="t m0 x42 h15 y99 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbc ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">8080</span></div><div class="t m0 x43 h15 y9a ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbd ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">8008</span></div><div class="t m0 x44 h15 y9b ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbc ws0"><span class="fc2 sc0">4004</span></div><div class="t m0 x45 h15 y9c ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbe wscb"><span class="fc2 sc0">Pentiu</span>m II</div><div class="t m0 x21 h15 y9d ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbf wscc"><span class="fc2 sc0">Pe</span>ntium III</div><div class="t m0 x46 h15 y9e ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsc0 wscd"><span class="fc2 sc0">P</span>entium 4</div><div class="t m0 x35 h13 y8c ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 lsb1 ws0">1000</div><div class="t m0 x36 h13 y8d ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 lsb2 ws0">10000</div><div class="t m0 x37 h13 y8e ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 ls0 ws0">100000</div><div class="t m0 x38 h13 y8f ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 lsb3 ws0">1000000</div><div class="t m0 xe h13 y90 ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 lsb1 ws0">10000000</div><div class="t m0 x39 h13 y91 ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 ls0 ws0">100000000</div><div class="t m0 x3a h13 y92 ff8 fsc fc0 sc0 ls9b ws0">1970<span class="_ _10"> </span><span class="lsb1">1975<span class="_ _10"> </span>1980<span class="_ _11"> </span><span class="lsb4">1985<span class="_ _2"> </span>1990<span class="_ _10"> </span></span>1995<span class="_ _11"> </span></span>2000</div><div class="t m0 x3b h14 y2d ff7 fsd fc0 sc0 lsb5 wsc8">Year of Introduction</div><div class="t m1 x3c h14 y93 ff7 fsd fc0 sc0 lsb6 ws0">Transistors</div><div class="t m0 x3d h15 y94 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsb7 wsc9">Pentium <span class="lsb8 ws0">®</span></div><div class="t m0 x3e h15 y95 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsb9 ws0">486</div><div class="t m0 x3f h15 y96 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsb9 ws0">386</div><div class="t m0 x40 h15 y97 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsba wsca">286 <span class="lsbb ws0">™</span></div><div class="t m0 x41 h15 y98 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbc ws0">8086</div><div class="t m0 x42 h15 y99 ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbc ws0">8080</div><div class="t m0 x43 h15 y9a ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbd ws0">8008</div><div class="t m0 x44 h15 y9b ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbc ws0">4004</div><div class="t m0 x45 h15 y9c ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbe wscb">Pentium II</div><div class="t m0 x21 h15 y9d ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsbf wscc">Pentium III</div><div class="t m0 x46 h15 y9e ff7 fse fc0 sc0 lsc0 wscd">Pentium 4</div><div class="t m0 xb h8 y11 ff2 fs5 fc0 sc0 ls34 ws2e">chapter1.fm Page 13 Friday, January 18, 2002 8:58 AM</div></div><div class="pi" data-data='{"ctm":[1.568627,0.000000,0.000000,1.568627,0.000000,0.000000]}'></div></div>
